Screening for endocrine hypertension. An Endocrine Society scientific statement

Authors

  • William F. Young Jr. Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States
  • David A. Calhoun University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
  • Jacques W.M. Lenders Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, Netherlands; University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universitat Dresden, Germany, Germany

Keywords:

arterial hypertension, endocrine hypertension, Endocrine Society

Abstract

Hypertension may be the initial clinical presentation for at least 15 endocrine disorders. An accurate diagnosis of endocrine hypertension provides clinicians with the opportunity to render a surgical cure or to achieve an optimal clinical response with specific pharmacologic therapy. It is challenging for the clinician to know when and how to perform case-detection testing for all the endocrine disorders in which hypertension may be the presenting symptom. Herein, we review the different forms of endocrine hypertension, with a focus on prevalence, clinical presentation, guidance on when to perform case detection testing, and currently available case-detection tests.

Hypertension affects 28.6% of adults in United States. In most, hypertension is primary (essential or idiopathic), but a subgroup of approximately 15% has secondary hypertension. More than 50% of children who present with hypertension have a secondary cause. In young adults (< 40 years old), the prevalence of secondary hypertension is approximately 30%. The secondary causes of hypertension include renal causes (e.g., renal parenchymal disease) and endocrine causes. Hypertension may be the initial clinical presentation many endocrine disorders: pheochromocytoma and sympathetic paraganglioma, primary aldosteronism, hyperdeoxycorticosteronism (congenital adrenal hyperplasia – 11b-hydroxylase deficiency, 17a-hydroxylase deficiency, deoxycorticosterone-producing tumor, primary cortisol resistance), cushing syndrome, apparent mineralocorticoid excess / 11b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency, hyperparathyroidism, secondary hyperaldosteronism, renovascular hypertension, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, obstructive sleep apnea and others.

Clinical context is important. For example, case detection for endocrine hypertension may not be clinically important in an older patient with multiple life-limiting comorbidities. However, screening for endocrine hypertension may be key to enhancing and prolonging life in most patients with hypertension, especially younger patients.

Author Biographies

William F. Young Jr., Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota

Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, Metabolism, Nutrition, and Internal Medicine

David A. Calhoun, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama

Calhoun, Vascular Biology and Hypertension Program, Division of Cardiovascular Disease, Department of Medicine

Jacques W.M. Lenders, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, Netherlands; University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universitat Dresden, Germany

Lenders, Department of Internal Medicine

Department of Internal Medicine III

References

  1. Yoon SS , Ostchega Y , Louis T . Recent trends in the prevalence of high blood pressure and its treatment and control, 1999-2008. NCHS Data Brief . 2010;(48):1–8.
  2. James PA , Oparil S , Carter BL , Cushman WC , Dennison-Himmelfarb C , Handler J , Lackland DT , LeFevre ML , MacKenzie TD , Ogedegbe O , Smith SC, Jr , Svetkey LP , Taler SJ , Townsend RR , Wright JT, Jr , Narva AS , Ortiz E . 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA . 2014;311(5):507–520.
  3. Fields LE , Burt VL , Cutler JA , Hughes J , Roccella EJ , Sorlie P . The burden of adult hypertension in the United States 1999 to 2000: a rising tide. Hypertension . 2004;44(4):398–404.
  4. Rudnick KV , Sackett DL , Hirst S , Holmes C . Hypertension in a family practice. Can Med Assoc J . 1977;117(5):492–497.
  5. Omura M, Saito J, Yamaguchi K, Kakuta Y, Nishikawa T. Prospective study on the prevalence of secondary hypertension among hypertensive patients visiting a general outpatient clinic in Japan. Hypertens Res. 2004;27(3):193-202.
  6. Gupta-Malhotra M , Banker A , Shete S , Hashmi SS , Tyson JE , Barratt MS , Hecht JT , Milewicz DM , Boerwinkle E . Essential hypertension vs. secondary hypertension among children. Am J Hypertens . 2015;28(1):73–80.
  7. Camelli S , Bobrie G , Postel-Vinay N , Azizi M , Plouin PF , Amar L . Lb01.11: Prevalence of secondary hypertension in young hypertensive adults. J Hypertens . 2015;33(Suppl 1):e47.
  8. O’Shea PM, Griffin TP, Fitzgibbon M. Hypertension: the role of biochemistry in the diagnosis and management. Clin Chim Acta. 2017;465:131–143.
  9. Funder JW , Carey RM , Mantero F , Murad MH , Reincke M , Shibata H , Stowasser M , Young WF, Jr . The management of primary aldosteronism: case detection, diagnosis, and treatment: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2016;101(5):1889–1916.
  10. Lenders JW , Eisenhofer G , Mannelli M , Pacak K . Phaeochromocytoma. Lancet . 2005;366(9486):665–675.
  11. DeLellis R, Lloyd R, Heitz P, Eng C. Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of Endocrine Organs. Lyon, France: IARC Press; 2004.
  12. Mansmann G , Lau J , Balk E , Rothberg M , Miyachi Y , Bornstein SR . The clinically inapparent adrenal mass: update in diagnosis and management. Endocr Rev . 2004;25(2):309–340.
  13. Lo CY , Lam KY , Wat MS , Lam KS . Adrenal pheochromocytoma remains a frequently overlooked diagnosis. Am J Surg . 2000;179(3):212–215.
  14. Beard CM , Sheps SG , Kurland LT , Carney JA , Lie JT . Occurrence of pheochromocytoma in Rochester, Minnesota, 1950 through 1979. Mayo Clin Proc . 1983;58(12):802–804.
  15. Kimura N , Miura Y , Nagatsu I , Nagura H . Catecholamine synthesizing enzymes in 70 cases of functioning and non-functioning phaeochromocytoma and extra-adrenal paraganglioma. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol . 1992;421(1):25–32.
  16. Eisenhofer G , Lenders JW , Goldstein DS , Mannelli M , Csako G , Walther MM , Brouwers FM , Pacak K . Pheochromocytoma catecholamine phenotypes and prediction of tumor size and location by use of plasma free metanephrines. Clin Chem . 2005;51(4):735–744.
  17. Eisenhofer G , Pacak K , Huynh TT , Qin N , Bratslavsky G , Linehan WM , Mannelli M , Friberg P , Grebe SK , Timmers HJ , Bornstein SR , Lenders JW . Catecholamine metabolomic and secretory phenotypes in phaeochromocytoma. Endocr Relat Cancer . 2010;18(1):97–111.
  18. Eisenhofer G , Huynh TT , Elkahloun A , Morris JC , Bratslavsky G , Linehan WM , Zhuang Z , Balgley BM , Lee CS , Mannelli M , Lenders JW , Bornstein SR , Pacak K . Differential expression of the regulated catecholamine secretory pathway in different hereditary forms of pheochromocytoma. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab . 2008;295(5):E1223–E1233.
  19. Bravo EL , Tagle R . Pheochromocytoma: state-of-the-art and future prospects. Endocr Rev . 2003;24(4):539–553.
  20. Eisenhofer G , Rivers G , Rosas AL , Quezado Z , Manger WM , Pacak K . Adverse drug reactions in patients with phaeochromocytoma: incidence, prevention and management. Drug Saf . 2007;30(11):1031–1062.
  21. Barrett C , van Uum SH , Lenders JW . Risk of catecholaminergic crisis following glucocorticoid administration in patients with an adrenal mass: a literature review. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 2015;83(5):622–628.
  22. Stolk RF , Bakx C , Mulder J , Timmers HJ , Lenders JW . Is the excess cardiovascular morbidity in pheochromocytoma related to blood pressure or to catecholamines? J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2013;98(3):1100–1106.
  23. Prejbisz A , Lenders JW , Eisenhofer G , Januszewicz A . Cardiovascular manifestations of phaeochromocytoma. J Hypertens . 2011;29(11):2049–2060.
  24. Young WF, Jr . Clinical practice. The incidentally discovered adrenal mass. N Engl J Med . 2007;356(6):601–610.
  25. Lenders JW , Duh QY , Eisenhofer G , Gimenez-Roqueplo AP , Grebe SK , Murad MH , Naruse M , Pacak K , Young WF, Jr ; Endocrine Society . Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2014;99(6):1915–1942.
  26. Lenders JW , Pacak K , Walther MM , Linehan WM , Mannelli M , Friberg P , Keiser HR , Goldstein DS , Eisenhofer G . Biochemical diagnosis of pheochromocytoma: which test is best? JAMA . 2002;287(11):1427–1434.
  27. Perry CG , Sawka AM , Singh R , Thabane L , Bajnarek J , Young WF, Jr . The diagnostic efficacy of urinary fractionated metanephrines measured by tandem mass spectrometry in detection of pheochromocytoma. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 2007;66(5):703–708.
  28. de Jong WH , Eisenhofer G , Post WJ , Muskiet FA , de Vries EG , Kema IP . Dietary influences on plasma and urinary metanephrines: implications for diagnosis of catecholamine-producing tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2009;94(8):2841–2849.
  29. Eisenhofer G , Lenders JW , Siegert G , Bornstein SR , Friberg P , Milosevic D , Mannelli M , Linehan WM , Adams K , Timmers HJ , Pacak K . Plasma methoxytyramine: a novel biomarker of metastatic pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma in relation to established risk factors of tumour size, location and SDHB mutation status. Eur J Cancer . 2012;48(11):1739–1749.
  30. Willemsen JJ , Sweep CG , Lenders JW , Ross HA . Stability of plasma free metanephrines during collection and storage as assessed by an optimized HPLC method with electrochemical detection. Clin Chem . 2003;49(11):1951–1953.
  31. Willemsen JJ , Ross HA , Lenders JW , Sweep FC . Stability of urinary fractionated metanephrines and catecholamines during collection, shipment, and storage of samples. Clin Chem . 2007;53(2):268–272.
  32. Sawka AM , Thabane L , Gafni A , Levine M , Young WF, Jr . Measurement of fractionated plasma metanephrines for exclusion of pheochromocytoma: can specificity be improved by adjustment for age? BMC Endocr Disord . 2005;5(1):1.
  33. Eisenhofer G , Lattke P , Herberg M , Siegert G , Qin N , Därr R , Hoyer J , Villringer A , Prejbisz A , Januszewicz A , Remaley A , Martucci V , Pacak K , Ross HA , Sweep FC , Lenders JW . Reference intervals for plasma free metanephrines with an age adjustment for normetanephrine for optimized laboratory testing of phaeochromocytoma. Ann Clin Biochem . 2013;50(Pt 1):62–69.
  34. Amar L , Eisenhofer G . Diagnosing phaeochromocytoma/paraganglioma in a patient presenting with critical illness: biochemistry versus imaging. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 2015;83(3):298–302.
  35. Algeciras-Schimnich A , Preissner CM , Young WF, Jr , Singh RJ , Grebe SK . Plasma chromogranin A or urine fractionated metanephrines follow-up testing improves the diagnostic accuracy of plasma fractionated metanephrines for pheochromocytoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2008;93(1):91–95.
  36. Eisenhofer G , Goldstein DS , Walther MM , Friberg P , Lenders JW , Keiser HR , Pacak K . Biochemical diagnosis of pheochromocytoma: how to distinguish true- from false-positive test results. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2003;88(6):2656–2666.
  37. Conn JW . Presidential address. I. Painting background. II. Primary aldosteronism, a new clinical syndrome. J Lab Clin Med . 1955;45(1):3–17.
  38. Conn JW , Knopf RF , Nesbit RM . Clinical characteristics of primary aldosteronism from an analysis of 145 cases. Am J Surg . 1964;107:159–172.
  39. Mulatero P , Stowasser M , Loh KC , Fardella CE , Gordon RD , Mosso L , Gomez-Sanchez CE , Veglio F , Young WF, Jr . Increased diagnosis of primary aldosteronism, including surgically correctable forms, in centers from five continents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2004;89(3):1045–1050.
  40. Rossi GP , Bernini G , Caliumi C , Desideri G , Fabris B , Ferri C , Ganzaroli C , Giacchetti G , Letizia C , Maccario M , Mallamaci F , Mannelli M , Mattarello MJ , Moretti A , Palumbo G , Parenti G , Porteri E , Semplicini A , Rizzoni D , Rossi E , Boscaro M , Pessina AC , Mantero F ; PAPY Study Investigators . A prospective study of the prevalence of primary aldosteronism in 1,125 hypertensive patients. J Am Coll Cardiol . 2006;48(11):2293–2300.
  41. Calhoun DA , Nishizaka MK , Zaman MA , Thakkar RB , Weissmann P . Hyperaldosteronism among black and white subjects with resistant hypertension. Hypertension . 2002;40(6):892–896.
  42. Eide IK , Torjesen PA , Drolsum A , Babovic A , Lilledahl NP . Low-renin status in therapy-resistant hypertension: a clue to efficient treatment. J Hypertens . 2004;22(11):2217–2226.
  43. Young WF, Jr , Klee GG . Primary aldosteronism. Diagnostic evaluation. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am . 1988;17(2):367–395.
  44. Gordon RD , Stowasser M , Klemm SA , Tunny TJ . Primary aldosteronism and other forms of mineralocorticoid hypertension. In: Swales J , ed. Textbook of Hypertension . London: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1994:865–892.
  45. Murphy BF , Whitworth JA , Kincaid-Smith P . Malignant hypertension due to an aldosterone producing adrenal adenoma. Clin Exp Hypertens A . 1985;7(7):939–950.
  46. Vetter H , Siebenschein R , Studer A , Witassek F , Furrer J , Glänzer K , Siegenthaler W , Vetter W . Primary aldosteronism: inability to differentiate unilateral from bilateral adrenal lesions by various routine clinical and laboratory data and by peripheral plasma aldosterone. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) . 1978;89(4):710–725.
  47. Rich GM , Ulick S , Cook S , Wang JZ , Lifton RP , Dluhy RG . Glucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism in a large kindred: clinical spectrum and diagnosis using a characteristic biochemical phenotype. Ann Intern Med . 1992;116(10):813–820.
  48. Stowasser M , Gartside MG , Gordon RD . A PCR-based method of screening individuals of all ages, from neonates to the elderly, for familial hyperaldosteronism type I. Aust N Z J Med . 1997;27(6):685–690.
  49. Gordon RD , Stowasser M . Familial forms broaden the horizons for primary aldosteronism. Trends Endocrinol Metab . 1998;9(6):220–227.
  50. Stowasser M , Gordon RD . Primary aldosteronism: from genesis to genetics. Trends Endocrinol Metab . 2003;14(7):310–317.
  51. Stowasser M , Huggard PR , Rossetti TR , Bachmann AW , Gordon RD . Biochemical evidence of aldosterone overproduction and abnormal regulation in normotensive individuals with familial hyperaldosteronism type I. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1999;84(11):4031–4036.
  52. Gordon RD , Stowasser M , Rutherford JC . Primary aldosteronism: are we diagnosing and operating on too few patients? World J Surg . 2001;25(7):941–947.
  53. Ono Y, Iwakura Y, Morimoto R, Kudo M, Igarashi Y, Nezu M, Tezuka Y, Ogawa H, Ito S, Stash F. Os 35-01 the prevalence of sleep apnea syndrome in primary aldosteronism. J Hypertens. 2016;34(Suppl 1) - ISH 2016 Abstract Book:e399.
  54. Campino C , Trejo P , Carvajal CA , Vecchiola A , Valdivia C , Fuentes CA , Delgado JF , Lagos CF , Aglony M , Carrasco C , Martinez-Aguayo A , García H , Loureiro C , Fardella CE . Pregnancy normalized familial hyperaldosteronism type I: a novel role for progesterone? J Hum Hypertens . 2015;29(2):138–139.
  55. Ronconi V , Turchi F , Zennaro MC , Boscaro M , Giacchetti G . Progesterone increase counteracts aldosterone action in a pregnant woman with primary aldosteronism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 2011;74(2):278–279.
  56. Albiger NM, Sartorato P, Mariniello B, Iacobone M, Finco I, Fassina A, Mantero F. A case of primary aldosteronism in pregnancy: do LH and GNRH receptors have a potential role in regulating aldosterone secretion? Eur J Endocrinol. 2011;164(3):405–412.
  57. Teo AE , Garg S , Shaikh LH , Zhou J , Karet Frankl FE , Gurnell M , Happerfield L , Marker A , Bienz M , Azizan EA , Brown MJ . Pregnancy, primary aldosteronism, and adrenal CTNNB1 mutations. N Engl J Med . 2015;373(15):1429–1436.
  58. Celen O , O’Brien MJ , Melby JC , Beazley RM . Factors influencing outcome of surgery for primary aldosteronism. Arch Surg . 1996;131(6):646–650.
  59. Rutherford JC , Taylor WL , Stowasser M , Gordon RD . Success of surgery for primary aldosteronism judged by residual autonomous aldosterone production. World J Surg . 1998;22(12):1243–1245.
  60. Stowasser M , Gordon RD . Primary aldosteronism--careful investigation is essential and rewarding. Mol Cell Endocrinol . 2004;217(1-2):33–39.
  61. Karagiannis A , Tziomalos K , Papageorgiou A , Kakafika AI , Pagourelias ED , Anagnostis P , Athyros VG , Mikhailidis DP . Spironolactone versus eplerenone for the treatment of idiopathic hyperaldosteronism. Expert Opin Pharmacother . 2008;9(4):509–515.
  62. Lim PO , Farquharson CA , Shiels P , Jung RT , Struthers AD , MacDonald TM . Adverse cardiac effects of salt with fludrocortisone in hypertension. Hypertension . 2001;37(3):856–861.
  63. Fallo F , Sonino N . Metabolic syndrome and primary aldosteronism: time for reappraisal? J Hum Hypertens . 2010;24(10):623–624.
  64. Stowasser M . New perspectives on the role of aldosterone excess in cardiovascular disease. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol . 2001;28(10):783–791.
  65. Weber KT , Brilla CG . Pathological hypertrophy and cardiac interstitium. Fibrosis and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Circulation . 1991;83(6):1849–1865.
  66. Young MJ , Funder JW . Mineralocorticoid receptors and pathophysiological roles for aldosterone in the cardiovascular system. J Hypertens . 2002;20(8):1465–1468.
  67. Catena C , Colussi G , Nadalini E , Chiuch A , Baroselli S , Lapenna R , Sechi LA . Cardiovascular outcomes in patients with primary aldosteronism after treatment. Arch Intern Med . 2008;168(1):80–85.
  68. Milliez P , Girerd X , Plouin PF , Blacher J , Safar ME , Mourad JJ . Evidence for an increased rate of cardiovascular events in patients with primary aldosteronism. J Am Coll Cardiol . 2005;45(8):1243–1248.
  69. Reincke M , Fischer E , Gerum S , Merkle K , Schulz S , Pallauf A , Quinkler M , Hanslik G , Lang K , Hahner S , Allolio B , Meisinger C , Holle R , Beuschlein F , Bidlingmaier M , Endres S ; German Conn’s Registry-Else Kröner-Fresenius-Hyperaldosteronism Registry . Observational study mortality in treated primary aldosteronism: the German Conn’s registry. Hypertension . 2012;60(3):618–624.
  70. Gordon RD . Primary aldosteronism. J Endocrinol Invest . 1995;18(7):495–511.
  71. Ahmed AH , Gordon RD , Taylor PJ , Ward G , Pimenta E , Stowasser M . Effect of contraceptives on aldosterone/renin ratio may vary according to the components of contraceptive, renin assay method, and possibly route of administration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2011;96(6):1797–1804.
  72. Ahmed AH , Gordon RD , Taylor PJ , Ward G , Pimenta E , Stowasser M . Are women more at risk of false-positive primary aldosteronism screening and unnecessary suppression testing than men? J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2011;96(2):E340–E346.
  73. McKenna TJ , Sequeira SJ , Heffernan A , Chambers J , Cunningham S . Diagnosis under random conditions of all disorders of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis, including primary hyperaldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1991;73(5):952–957.
  74. Gordon RD , Geddes RA , Pawsey CG , O’Halloran MW . Hypertension and severe hyperkalaemia associated with suppression of renin and aldosterone and completely reversed by dietary sodium restriction. Australas Ann Med . 1970;19(4):287–294.
  75. Stowasser M , Gordon RD . The aldosterone-renin ratio for screening for primary aldosteronism. Endocrinologist . 2004;14(5):267–276.
  76. Brown MJ , Hopper RV . Calcium-channel blockade can mask the diagnosis of Conn’s syndrome. Postgrad Med J . 1999;75(882):235–236.
  77. Mulatero P , Rabbia F , Milan A , Paglieri C , Morello F , Chiandussi L , Veglio F . Drug effects on aldosterone/plasma renin activity ratio in primary aldosteronism. Hypertension . 2002;40(6):897–902.
  78. Stowasser M , Taylor PJ , Pimenta E , Ahmed AH , Gordon RD . Laboratory investigation of primary aldosteronism. Clin Biochem Rev . 2010;31(2):39–56.
  79. Ahmed AH , Gordon RD , Taylor P , Ward G , Pimenta E , Stowasser M . Effect of atenolol on aldosterone/renin ratio calculated by both plasma renin activity and direct renin concentration in healthy male volunteers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2010;95(7):3201–3206.
  80. Ahmed AH , Calvird M , Gordon RD , Taylor PJ , Ward G , Pimenta E , Young R , Stowasser M . Effects of two selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants, sertraline and escitalopram, on aldosterone/renin ratio in normotensive depressed male patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2011;96(4):1039–1045.
  81. Melcescu E, Phillips J, Moll G, Subauste JS, Koch CA. 11Beta-hydroxylase deficiency and other syndromes of mineralocorticoid excess as a rare cause of endocrine hypertension. Horm Metab Res. 2012;44(12):867–878.
  82. Speiser PW , Azziz R , Baskin LS , Ghizzoni L , Hensle TW , Merke DP , Meyer-Bahlburg HF , Miller WL , Montori VM , Oberfield SE , Ritzen M , White PC ; Endocrine Society . Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2010;95(9):4133–4160.
  83. Krone N , Arlt W . Genetics of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2009;23(2):181–192.
  84. White PC , Dupont J , New MI , Leiberman E , Hochberg Z , Rösler A . A mutation in CYP11B1 (Arg-448----His) associated with steroid 11 beta-hydroxylase deficiency in Jews of Moroccan origin. J Clin Invest . 1991;87(5):1664–1667.
  85. Merke DP , Bornstein SR . Congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Lancet . 2005;365(9477):2125–2136.
  86. New MI , Geller DS , Fallo F , Wilson RC . Monogenic low renin hypertension. Trends Endocrinol Metab . 2005;16(3):92–97.
  87. Kim YM , Kang M , Choi JH , Lee BH , Kim GH , Ohn JH , Kim SY , Park MS , Yoo HW . A review of the literature on common CYP17A1 mutations in adults with 17-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase deficiency, a case series of such mutations among Koreans and functional characteristics of a novel mutation. Metabolism . 2014;63(1):42–49.
  88. Müssig K , Wehrmann M , Horger M , Maser-Gluth C , Häring HU , Overkamp D . Adrenocortical carcinoma producing 11-deoxycorticosterone: a rare cause of mineralocorticoid hypertension. J Endocrinol Invest . 2005;28(1):61–65.
  89. Ishikawa SE , Saito T , Kaneko K , Okada K , Fukuda S , Kuzuya T . Hypermineralocorticism without elevation of plasma aldosterone: deoxycorticosterone-producing adrenal adenoma and hyperplasia. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 1988;29(4):367–375.
  90. Nicolaides NC , Roberts ML , Kino T , Braatvedt G , Hurt DE , Katsantoni E , Sertedaki A , Chrousos GP , Charmandari E . A novel point mutation of the human glucocorticoid receptor gene causes primary generalized glucocorticoid resistance through impaired interaction with the LXXLL motif of the p160 coactivators: dissociation of the transactivating and transreppressive activities. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2014;99(5):E902–E907.
  91. Charmandari E , Kino T , Chrousos GP . Primary generalized familial and sporadic glucocorticoid resistance (Chrousos syndrome) and hypersensitivity. Endocr Dev . 2013;24:67–85.
  92. Chapman K , Holmes M , Seckl J . 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases: intracellular gate-keepers of tissue glucocorticoid action. Physiol Rev . 2013;93(3):1139–1206.
  93. Robles BJ, Sandoval AR, Dardon JD, Blas CA. Lethal liquorice lollies (liquorice abuse causing pseudohyperaldosteronism). BMJ Case Rep. 2013;2013.
  94. Stewart PM , Krozowski ZS , Gupta A , Milford DV , Howie AJ , Sheppard MC , Whorwood CB . Hypertension in the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess due to mutation of the 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 gene. Lancet . 1996;347(8994):88–91.
  95. Nieman LK , Biller BM , Findling JW , Newell-Price J , Savage MO , Stewart PM , Montori VM . The diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2008;93(5):1526–1540.
  96. Liddle GW . A familial renal disorder simulating primary aldosteronism but with negligible aldosterone secretion. Trans Assoc Am Physicians . 1963;76:199–213.
  97. Rossier BC , Schild L . Epithelial sodium channel: Mendelian versus essential hypertension. Hypertension . 2008;52(4):595–600.
  98. Herrmann SM , Saad A , Textor SC . Management of atherosclerotic renovascular disease after Cardiovascular Outcomes in Renal Atherosclerotic Lesions (CORAL). Nephrol Dial Transplant . 2015;30(3):366–375.
  99. Lewis S , Kadian-Dodov D , Bansal A , Lookstein RA . Multimodality imaging of fibromuscular dysplasia. Abdom Radiol (NY) . 2016;41(10):2048–2060.
  100. Zachrisson K, Herlitz H, Lonn L, Falkenberg M, Eklof H. Duplex ultrasound for identifying renal artery stenosis: direct criteria re-evaluated. Acta Radiol. 2017;58(2):176–182.
  101. Demirpolat G , Ozbek SS , Parildar M , Oran I , Memiş A . Reliability of intrarenal Doppler sonographic parameters of renal artery stenosis. J Clin Ultrasound . 2003;31(7):346–351.
  102. Goupil R, Cowley D, Wolley M, Ahmed AH, Gordon RD, Stowasser M. The utility of renal venous renin studies in selection of patients with renal artery stenosis for angioplasty: a retrospective study. J Hypertens. 2015;33(9):1931–1938; discussion 1938.
  103. Lindholm J , Juul S , Jørgensen JO , Astrup J , Bjerre P , Feldt-Rasmussen U , Hagen C , Jørgensen J , Kosteljanetz M , Kristensen L , Laurberg P , Schmidt K , Weeke J . Incidence and late prognosis of Cushing’s syndrome: a population-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2001;86(1):117–123.
  104. Sacerdote A , Weiss K , Tran T , Rokeya Noor B , McFarlane SI . Hypertension in patients with Cushing’s disease: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management. Curr Hypertens Rep . 2005;7(3):212–218.
  105. Baid S , Nieman LK . Glucocorticoid excess and hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep . 2004;6(6):493–499.
  106. Kendrick ML , Curlee K , Lloyd R , Farley DR , Grant CS , Thompson GB , Rowland C , Young WF, Jr , van Heerden JA . Aldosterone-secreting adrenocortical carcinomas are associated with unique operative risks and outcomes. Surgery . 2002;132(6):1008–1011, discussion 1012.
  107. Tunbridge WM , Evered DC , Hall R , Appleton D , Brewis M , Clark F , Evans JG , Young E , Bird T , Smith PA . The spectrum of thyroid disease in a community: the Whickham survey. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 1977;7(6):481–493.
  108. Vanderpump MP , Tunbridge WM , French JM , Appleton D , Bates D , Clark F , Grimley Evans J , Hasan DM , Rodgers H , Tunbridge F . The incidence of thyroid disorders in the community: a twenty-year follow-up of the Whickham Survey. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 1995;43(1):55–68.
  109. Knudsen N , Jorgensen T , Rasmussen S , Christiansen E , Perrild H . The prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in a population with borderline iodine deficiency. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 1999;51(3):361–367.
  110. Hollowell JG , Staehling NW , Flanders WD , Hannon WH , Gunter EW , Spencer CA , Braverman LE . Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2002;87(2):489–499.
  111. Parle JV , Franklyn JA , Cross KW , Jones SC , Sheppard MC . Prevalence and follow-up of abnormal thyrotrophin (TSH) concentrations in the elderly in the United Kingdom. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 1991;34(1):77–83.
  112. Gussekloo J , van Exel E , de Craen AJ , Meinders AE , Frölich M , Westendorp RG . Thyroid status, disability and cognitive function, and survival in old age. JAMA . 2004;292(21):2591–2599.
  113. Kanaya AM , Harris F , Volpato S , Pérez-Stable EJ , Harris T , Bauer DC . Association between thyroid dysfunction and total cholesterol level in an older biracial population: the health, aging and body composition study. Arch Intern Med . 2002;162(7):773–779.
  114. Danzi S , Klein I . Thyroid hormone and blood pressure regulation. Curr Hypertens Rep . 2003;5(6):513–520.
  115. Bahn RS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, Garber JR, Greenlee MC, Klein I, Laurberg P, McDougall IR, Montori VM, Rivkees SA, Ross DS, Sosa JA, Stan MN. Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Endocr Pract. 2011;17(3):456–520.
  116. Canaris GJ , Manowitz NR , Mayor G , Ridgway EC . The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Arch Intern Med . 2000;160(4):526–534.
  117. Streeten DH , Anderson GH, Jr , Howland T , Chiang R , Smulyan H . Effects of thyroid function on blood pressure. Recognition of hypothyroid hypertension. Hypertension . 1988;11(1):78–83.
  118. Jian WX , Jin J , Qin L , Fang WJ , Chen XR , Chen HB , Su Q , Xing HL . Relationship between thyroid-stimulating hormone and blood pressure in the middle-aged and elderly population. Singapore Med J . 2013;54(7):401–405.
  119. Garber JR, Cobin RH, Gharib H, Hennessey JV, Klein I, Mechanick JI, Pessah-Pollack R, Singer PA, Woeber KA. Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid. 2012;22(12):1200–1235.
  120. Yeh MW , Ituarte PH , Zhou HC , Nishimoto S , Liu IL , Harari A , Haigh PI , Adams AL . Incidence and prevalence of primary hyperparathyroidism in a racially mixed population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2013;98(3):1122–1129.
  121. Richards AM , Espiner EA , Nicholls MG , Ikram H , Hamilton EJ , Maslowski AH . Hormone, calcium and blood pressure relationships in primary hyperparathyroidism. J Hypertens . 1988;6(9):747–752.
  122. Marx SJ. Letter to the editor: Distinguishing typical primary hyperparathyroidism from familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia by using an index of urinary calcium. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;100(2):L29–30.
  123. Heyliger A , Tangpricha V , Weber C , Sharma J . Parathyroidectomy decreases systolic and diastolic blood pressure in hypertensive patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. Surgery . 2009;146(6):1042–1047.
  124. Rydberg E , Birgander M , Bondeson AG , Bondeson L , Willenheimer R . Effect of successful parathyroidectomy on 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. Int J Cardiol . 2010;142(1):15–21.
  125. Holdaway IM , Rajasoorya C . Epidemiology of acromegaly. Pituitary . 1999;2(1):29–41.
  126. Kwon O , Song YD , Kim SY , Lee EJ ; Rare Disease Study Group, Science and Research Committee, Korean Endocrine Society . Nationwide survey of acromegaly in South Korea. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 2013;78(4):577–585.
  127. Chanson P , Salenave S . Acromegaly. Orphanet J Rare Dis . 2008;3:17.
  128. Terzolo M , Matrella C , Boccuzzi A , Luceri S , Borriero M , Reimondo G , Pia A , Rovero E , Paccotti P , Angeli A . Twenty-four hour profile of blood pressure in patients with acromegaly. Correlation with demographic, clinical and hormonal features. J Endocrinol Invest . 1999;22(1):48–54.
  129. Berg C , Petersenn S , Lahner H , Herrmann BL , Buchfelder M , Droste M , Stalla GK , Strasburger CJ , Roggenbuck U , Lehmann N , Moebus S , Jöckel KH , Möhlenkamp S , Erbel R , Saller B , Mann K ; Investigative Group of the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study and the German Pegvisomant Observational Study Board and Investigators . Cardiovascular risk factors in patients with uncontrolled and long-term acromegaly: comparison with matched data from the general population and the effect of disease control. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2010;95(8):3648–3656.
  130. Katznelson L , Laws ER, Jr , Melmed S , Molitch ME , Murad MH , Utz A , Wass JA ; Endocrine Society . Acromegaly: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2014;99(11):3933–3951.
  131. Somers VK , White DP , Amin R , Abraham WT , Costa F , Culebras A , Daniels S , Floras JS , Hunt CE , Olson LJ , Pickering TG , Russell R , Woo M , Young T ; American Heart Association Council for High Blood Pressure Research Professional Education Committee, Council on Clinical Cardiology; American Heart Association Stroke Council; American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; American College of Cardiology Foundation . Sleep apnea and cardiovascular disease: an American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology Foundation Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association Council for High Blood Pressure Research Professional Education Committee, Council on Clinical Cardiology, Stroke Council, and Council On Cardiovascular Nursing. In collaboration with the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute National Center on Sleep Disorders Research (National Institutes of Health). Circulation . 2008;118(10):1080–1111.
  132. Peppard PE , Young T , Palta M , Skatrud J . Prospective study of the association between sleep-disordered breathing and hypertension. N Engl J Med . 2000;342(19):1378–1384.
  133. Nieto FJ , Young TB , Lind BK , Shahar E , Samet JM , Redline S , D’Agostino RB , Newman AB , Lebowitz MD , Pickering TG . Association of sleep-disordered breathing, sleep apnea, and hypertension in a large community-based study. Sleep Heart Health Study. JAMA . 2000;283(14):1829–1836.
  134. Young T , Peppard P , Palta M , Hla KM , Finn L , Morgan B , Skatrud J . Population-based study of sleep-disordered breathing as a risk factor for hypertension. Arch Intern Med . 1997;157(15):1746–1752.
  135. Cano-Pumarega I , Durán-Cantolla J , Aizpuru F , Miranda-Serrano E , Rubio R , Martínez-Null C , de Miguel J , Egea C , Cancelo L , Alvarez A , Fernández-Bolaños M , Barbé F . Obstructive sleep apnea and systemic hypertension: longitudinal study in the general population: the Vitoria Sleep Cohort. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 2011;184(11):1299–1304.
  136. Fletcher EC , DeBehnke RD , Lovoi MS , Gorin AB . Undiagnosed sleep apnea in patients with essential hypertension. Ann Intern Med . 1985;103(2):190–195.
  137. Lavie P , Ben-Yosef R , Rubin AE . Prevalence of sleep apnea syndrome among patients with essential hypertension. Am Heart J . 1984;108(2):373–376.
  138. Worsnop CJ , Naughton MT , Barter CE , Morgan TO , Anderson AI , Pierce RJ . The prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea in hypertensives. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 1998;157(1):111–115.
  139. Grote L , Hedner J , Peter JH . Sleep-related breathing disorder is an independent risk factor for uncontrolled hypertension. J Hypertens . 2000;18(6):679–685.
  140. Logan AG , Perlikowski SM , Mente A , Tisler A , Tkacova R , Niroumand M , Leung RS , Bradley TD . High prevalence of unrecognized sleep apnoea in drug-resistant hypertension. J Hypertens . 2001;19(12):2271–2277.
  141. Gonzaga CC, Gaddam KK, Ahmed MI, Pimenta E, Thomas SJ, Harding SM, Oparil S, Cofield SS, Calhoun DA. Severity of obstructive sleep apnea is related to aldosterone status in subjects with resistant hypertension. J Clin Sleep Med. 2010;6(4):363–368.
  142. Pratt-Ubunama MN , Nishizaka MK , Boedefeld RL , Cofield SS , Harding SM , Calhoun DA . Plasma aldosterone is related to severity of obstructive sleep apnea in subjects with resistant hypertension. Chest . 2007;131(2):453–459.
  143. Sim JJ , Yan EH , Liu IL , Rasgon SA , Kalantar-Zadeh K , Calhoun DA , Derose SF . Positive relationship of sleep apnea to hyperaldosteronism in an ethnically diverse population. J Hypertens . 2011;29(8):1553–1559.
  144. Florczak E , Prejbisz A , Szwench-Pietrasz E , Sliwiński P , Bieleń P , Klisiewicz A , Michałowska I , Warchoł E , Januszewicz M , Kała M , Witkowski A , Więcek A , Narkiewicz K , Somers VK , Januszewicz A . Clinical characteristics of patients with resistant hypertension: the RESIST-POL study. J Hum Hypertens . 2013;27(11):678–685.
  145. Lloberes P , Sampol G , Espinel E , Segarra A , Ramon MA , Romero O , Ferrer R , Martínez-Garcia MA , Tovar JL . A randomized controlled study of CPAP effect on plasma aldosterone concentration in patients with resistant hypertension and obstructive sleep apnea. J Hypertens . 2014;32(8):1650–1657, discussion 1657.
  146. Muxfeldt ES , Margallo VS , Guimarães GM , Salles GF . Prevalence and associated factors of obstructive sleep apnea in patients with resistant hypertension. Am J Hypertens . 2014;27(8):1069–1078.
  147. Gaddam K , Pimenta E , Thomas SJ , Cofield SS , Oparil S , Harding SM , Calhoun DA . Spironolactone reduces severity of obstructive sleep apnoea in patients with resistant hypertension: a preliminary report. J Hum Hypertens . 2010;24(8):532–537.
  148. Kasai T , Bradley TD , Friedman O , Logan AG . Effect of intensified diuretic therapy on overnight rostral fluid shift and obstructive sleep apnoea in patients with uncontrolled hypertension. J Hypertens . 2014;32(3):673–680.
  149. Yang L , Zhang H , Cai M , Zou Y , Jiang X , Song L , Liang E , Bian J , Wu H , Hui R . Effect of spironolactone on patients with resistant hypertension and obstructive sleep apnea. Clin Exp Hypertens . 2016;38(5):464–468.
  150. Krasińska B , Miazga A , Cofta S , Szczepaniak-Chicheł L , Trafas T , Krasiński Z , Pawlaczyk-Gabriel K , Tykarski A . Effect of eplerenone on the severity of obstructive sleep apnea and arterial stiffness in patients with resistant arterial hypertension. Pol Arch Med Wewn . 2016;126(5):330–339.
  151. Young T , Palta M , Dempsey J , Skatrud J , Weber S , Badr S . The occurrence of sleep-disordered breathing among middle-aged adults. N Engl J Med . 1993;328(17):1230–1235.
  152. Redline S , Kump K , Tishler PV , Browner I , Ferrette V . Gender differences in sleep disordered breathing in a community-based sample. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 1994;149(3 Pt 1):722–726.
  153. Young T , Finn L , Austin D , Peterson A . Menopausal status and sleep-disordered breathing in the Wisconsin Sleep Cohort Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 2003;167(9):1181–1185.
  154. Punjabi NM , Sorkin JD , Katzel LI , Goldberg AP , Schwartz AR , Smith PL . Sleep-disordered breathing and insulin resistance in middle-aged and overweight men. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 2002;165(5):677–682.
  155. O’Keeffe T , Patterson EJ . Evidence supporting routine polysomnography before bariatric surgery. Obes Surg . 2004;14(1):23–26.
  156. Nagayoshi M , Punjabi NM , Selvin E , Pankow JS , Shahar E , Iso H , Folsom AR , Lutsey PL . Obstructive sleep apnea and incident type 2 diabetes. Sleep Med . 2016;25:156–161.
  157. Bixler EO , Vgontzas AN , Ten Have T , Tyson K , Kales A . Effects of age on sleep apnea in men: I. Prevalence and severity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 1998;157(1):144–148.
  158. Young T , Shahar E , Nieto FJ , Redline S , Newman AB , Gottlieb DJ , Walsleben JA , Finn L , Enright P , Samet JM ; Sleep Heart Health Study Research Group . Predictors of sleep-disordered breathing in community-dwelling adults: the Sleep Heart Health Study. Arch Intern Med . 2002;162(8):893–900.
  159. Ancoli-Israel S , Kripke DF , Klauber MR , Mason WJ , Fell R , Kaplan O . Sleep-disordered breathing in community-dwelling elderly. Sleep . 1991;14(6):486–495.
  160. Rudnick EF, Walsh JS, Hampton MC, Mitchell RB. Prevalence and ethnicity of sleep-disordered breathing and obesity in children. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2007;137(6):878–882.
  161. Redline S , Tishler PV , Schluchter M , Aylor J , Clark K , Graham G . Risk factors for sleep-disordered breathing in children. Associations with obesity, race, and respiratory problems. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 1999;159(5 Pt 1):1527–1532.
  162. Pranathiageswaran S, Badr MS, Severson R, Rowley JA. The influence of race on the severity of sleep disordered breathing. J Clin Sleep Med. 2013;9(4):303–309.
  163. Ancoli-Israel S , Klauber MR , Stepnowsky C , Estline E , Chinn A , Fell R . Sleep-disordered breathing in African-American elderly. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 1995;152(6 Pt 1):1946–1949.
  164. Muxfeldt ES , Margallo V , Costa LM , Guimarães G , Cavalcante AH , Azevedo JC , de Souza F , Cardoso CR , Salles GF . Effects of continuous positive airway pressure treatment on clinic and ambulatory blood pressures in patients with obstructive sleep apnea and resistant hypertension: a randomized controlled trial. Hypertension . 2015;65(4):736–742.
  165. Martínez-García MA , Capote F , Campos-Rodríguez F , Lloberes P , Díaz de Atauri MJ , Somoza M , Masa JF , González M , Sacristán L , Barbé F , Durán-Cantolla J , Aizpuru F , Mañas E , Barreiro B , Mosteiro M , Cebrián JJ , de la Peña M , García-Río F , Maimó A , Zapater J , Hernández C , Grau SanMarti N , Montserrat JM ; Spanish Sleep Network . Effect of CPAP on blood pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea and resistant hypertension: the HIPARCO randomized clinical trial. JAMA . 2013;310(22):2407–2415.

Downloads

Published

2017-12-28

How to Cite

Young Jr., W. F., Calhoun, D. A., & Lenders, J. W. (2017). Screening for endocrine hypertension. An Endocrine Society scientific statement. REPRODUCTIVE ENDOCRINOLOGY, (38), 58–71. Retrieved from https://reproduct-endo.com/article/view/119840

Issue

No. 38 (2017)

Section

Interdisciplinary problems

License

Copyright (c) 2017 William F. Young Jr., David A. Calhoun, Jacques W.M. Lenders

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:

    1. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.

    1. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.